Wine is produced by harvesting grapes, crushing them into must, fermenting the sugars into alcohol with yeast, then clarifying, aging and bottling the result. Red, white and rosé wines differ mainly in how long the juice stays in contact with grape skins during fermentation.
Wine starts as grape juice and ends as a complex alcoholic beverage through a sequence of steps governed internationally by the Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV), the intergovernmental body that sets technical standards for the global wine trade. The core stages are harvesting, crushing, fermentation, pressing, clarification, aging and bottling.
Harvesting and crushing
According to Italian producer Frescobaldi, grapes are picked when the ripeness of the pulp, skin and seeds reaches balance, with harvest dates running from August through November depending on the grape variety and the hemisphere. Once picked, the grapes go through a crusher-destemmer, a machine that breaks the berries open to release the must, the mix of juice, skins, seeds and sometimes stems.
The OIV's International Code of Oenological Practices defines crushing as the operation that breaks grape skins to liberate the must, promoting the diffusion of soluble elements and supporting yeast activity. The code specifies that crushing should happen promptly after the grapes arrive at the winery and should avoid damaging seeds or stems, which can add unwanted bitterness.
Pressing, the OIV notes, extracts liquid from the grapes or from the leftover skins and seeds (called marc) and should be done slowly and progressively with equipment that compresses the fruit without crushing the solid parts. A related operation, draining, lets juice flow out before pressing and can be done statically or dynamically to limit harsh extraction from skins and seeds.
Fermentation: red, white and rosé diverge here
Fermentation is driven by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which converts the natural sugars in grape juice into ethanol and carbon dioxide, according to Frescobaldi. The treatment of skins during this stage is what separates the three main wine colors.
White wine: the must ferments after the skins have been pressed off, so there is little or no skin contact.
Rosé wine: the juice has brief contact with red or black grape skins, enough to pick up some color before the skins are removed.
Red wine: the skins stay in the fermenting juice throughout, extracting color and tannins that give red wines their structure and darker hue.
Malolactic fermentation and clarification
Many wines go through a second, bacterial process called malolactic fermentation (MLF), described by the wine education site Wine Folly as the conversion of tart malic acid into softer, creamier lactic acid. The process is carried out by bacteria such as Oenococcus oeni and is not technically a fermentation because no yeast is involved. MLF produces a compound called diacetyl, which Wine Folly says gives wine a buttery or creamy character and a fuller, oilier texture on the palate. Nearly all red wines and some whites, such as Chardonnay and Viognier, undergo MLF; winemakers can let only part of a white wine batch go through the process to keep some of its fresh, citrus character.
After fermentation, the wine still contains solids such as dead yeast cells and fragments of grape matter. According to Frescobaldi, the wine is filtered before bottling to remove this remaining sediment so the finished wine is clear and stable.
Aging and bottling
Winemakers choose how long and in what vessel a wine matures, from a few months to several years, according to Frescobaldi. Options include stainless steel tanks, cement vats, terracotta amphorae, or oak barrels with varying degrees of toasting that add flavor compounds like vanilla and spice. Once bottled, wines meant for further aging are typically stored lying down at a constant temperature, with the cork kept in contact with the wine so it does not dry out. Before bottling, the wine is filtered to remove remaining sediment and excess oxygen is limited to protect it from premature oxidation.
How to taste the finished wine
Wine schools commonly teach a five-step tasting method outlined by the Napa Valley Wine Academy: see, swirl, smell, sip and savor. Each step targets a different sense and a different piece of information about the wine.
See: Hold the glass by its stem over a white background to judge the wine's color and clarity.
Swirl: Gentle circular motion introduces oxygen, which the Academy says unlocks aromatic compounds.
Smell: A few short sniffs followed by one longer inhale help identify fruit, floral, herbal, spice and earthy notes; smell is estimated to account for roughly 80% of perceived taste, according to the Academy.
Sip: A moderate sip, moved around the mouth, lets the taster assess sweetness, acidity, tannin and body in sequence.
Savor: Attention turns to the finish, the length of flavor after swallowing, and an overall judgment of the wine's balance and complexity.
Swirling helps oxygen meet the wine. That rush of air unlocks hundreds of aromatic compounds, releasing the wine's true scent and flavor.
— Napa Valley Wine Academy
Questions
What is the difference between making red wine and white wine?
The main difference is skin contact during fermentation: red wine ferments with its skins in the juice to extract color and tannin, while white wine is pressed to remove the skins before fermentation begins, according to Frescobaldi.
What does malolactic fermentation do to wine?
Malolactic fermentation is a bacterial process that converts sharp malic acid into softer lactic acid, giving wine a creamier texture and sometimes a buttery flavor caused by a compound called diacetyl, according to Wine Folly.
Why is clarification necessary before bottling?
After fermentation the wine still holds solids such as dead yeast cells and fragments of grape matter; winemakers filter the wine before bottling, according to Frescobaldi, to remove this sediment so the finished wine is clear and stable.
What are the five steps of wine tasting?
Wine schools such as the Napa Valley Wine Academy teach see, swirl, smell, sip and savor — a sequence that examines a wine's color, releases its aromas, identifies its scent, assesses its taste structure, and evaluates its finish.
How long does wine typically age before bottling?
Aging length varies by winemaker choice and wine style, ranging from a few months to several years, and can take place in steel, cement, terracotta or oak vessels, according to Frescobaldi.
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